Battery
A battery or voltaic cell is a combination of many electrochemical Galvanic cells of identical type to store chemical energy and to deliver higher voltage or higher current than with single cells.
The battery cells create a voltage difference between the terminals of each cell and hence to its combination in battery. When an external electrical circuit is connected to the battery, then the battery drives electrons through the circuit and electrical work is done. Since the invention of the first Voltaic pile in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, the battery has become a common power source for many household and industrial applications, and is now a multi-billion dollar industry.
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Batteries by Brand
Ariens
AYP Electrolux
Billy Goat
Black & Decker
Bobcat
Bolens
Bosch
Brave
Briggs and Stratton
Clore Automotive
Club Car
Columbia
Craftsman
Cub Cadet
Cushman
DeWalt
Diamond
Dolmar
Dremel
Dyson
Earthquake
Echo
EGO
EGO Power
Einhell
Energup
Everride
EZ-Go
Fisher
Generac
Goal Zero
Gravely
Great Dane
Greenworks
Hart
Hitachi
Homelite
Honda
Husqvarna
Hy-Capacity
Ingersoll Rand
Interstate
Jackery
John Deere
King Electric
Kobalt
Kohler
Lawn-Boy
Makita
Massey Ferguson
McCulloch
Meyer
Milwaukee
MTD
Murray
NorthStar
Optima
Porter Cable
Poulan
Powerhorse
Ridgid
Robin/Subaru
Ryobi
Scag
Sears
Simplicity
Skil
Snapper
Stihl
SuperHandy
Toro
Troy-Bilt
Universal
Waitley
Weed Eater
WEN
Western
Worx
Yard Machines
Yard-Man
Battery classifications
Batteries are classified into two broad categories, each type with advantages and disadvantages.
Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy to electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily restored to the battery by electrical means.
Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original composition.
How long do batteries last?
Even if never taken out of the original package, disposable (or "primary") batteries can lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge every year at a temperature of about 20°–30°C. This is known as the "self discharge" rate and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions, which occur within the cell even if no load is applied to it. The rate of the side reactions is reduced if the batteries are stored at low temperature, although some batteries can be damaged by freezing. High or low temperatures may reduce battery performance. This will affect the initial voltage of the battery. For an AA alkaline battery this initial voltage is approximately normally distributed around 1.6 volts.
How long do rechargeable batteries last?
Rechargeable batteries traditionally self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged NiCd loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However, modern lithium designs have reduced the self-discharge rate to a relatively low level (but still poorer than for primary batteries). Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first use.
Although rechargeable batteries may be refreshed by charging, they still suffer degradation through usage. Low-capacity nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries (1700-2000 mA·h) can be charged for about 1000 cycles, whereas high capacity NiMH batteries (above 2500 mA·h) can be charged for about 500 cycles. Nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance increases beyond usable values. Normally a fast charge, rather than a slow overnight charge, will result in a shorter battery lifespan. However, if the overnight charger is not "smart" and cannot detect when the battery is fully charged, then overcharging is likely, which will damage the battery. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material falls off the electrodes. NiCd batteries suffer the drawback that they should be fully discharged before recharge. Without full discharge, crystals may build up on the electrodes, thus decreasing the active surface area and increasing internal resistance. This decreases battery capacity and causes the dreaded "memory effect". These electrode crystals can also penetrate the electrolyte separator, thereby causing shorts. NiMH, although similar in chemistry, does not suffer from "memory effect" to quite this extent. When a battery reaches the end of its lifetime, it will not suddenly lose all of its capacity; rather, its capacity will gradually decrease.
Automotive lead-acid rechargeable batteries have a much harder life. Because of vibration, shock, heat, cold, and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use. Automotive starting batteries have many thin plates to provide as much current as possible in a reasonably small package. In general, the thicker the plates, the longer the life of the battery. Typically they are only drained a small amount before recharge. Care should be taken to avoid deep discharging a starting battery, since each charge and discharge cycle causes active material to be shed from the plates.
"Deep-cycle" lead-acid batteries such as those used in electric golf carts have much thicker plates to aid their longevity. The main benefit of the lead-acid battery is its low cost; the main drawbacks are its large size and weight for a given capacity and voltage. Lead-acid batteries should never be discharged to below 20% of their full capacity, because internal resistance will cause heat and damage when they are recharged. Deep-cycle lead-acid systems often use a low-charge warning light or a low-charge power cut-off switch to prevent the type of damage that will shorten the battery's life.
Extending battery life
Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in a refrigerator or freezer, because the chemical reactions in the batteries are slower. Such storage can extend the life of alkaline batteries by ~5%; while the charge of rechargeable batteries can be extended from a few days up to several months. In order to reach their maximum voltage, batteries must be returned to room temperature; discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mAH at 0°C is only half as efficient as it is at 20°C. As a result, alkaline battery manufacturers like Duracell do not recommend refrigerating or freezing batteries.
Fastest charging, largest, and lightest batteries
Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries are the fastest charging and discharging, next to supercapacitors. The world's largest battery is in Fairbanks, Alaska, composed of Ni-Cd cells. Sodium-sulfur batteries are being used to store wind power. Lithium-sulfur batteries have been used on the longest and highest solar powered flight.
Lithium-ion battery
A lithium-ion battery (sometimes Li-ion battery) is a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge, and reversely when charging. During discharge the negative electrode is the anode where oxidation takes place and during charge it turns into the cathode where reduction takes place. This functional meaning of the words anode and cathode is however widely ignored in the slang of battery-specialists: "anode" means negative electrode and "cathode" means positive electrode, and this somewhat abusive practice is followed in the present article. Different types of lithium-ion batteries use different chemistry and have different performance, cost, and safety characteristics. Unlike lithium primary batteries (=disposable batteries), lithium-ion cells use an intercalated lithium compound as the electrode material instead of metallic lithium.
Lithium-ion batteries are common in consumer electronics. They are one of the most popular types of battery for portable electronics, with one of the best energy-to-weight ratios, no memory effect, and a slow loss of charge when not in use. In addition to uses for consumer electronics, lithium-ion batteries are growing in popularity for defense, electric vehicles, and aerospace applications due to their high energy density. However, certain kinds of mistreatment may cause conventional lithium-ion batteries to explode.
During discharge, the current flowing within the battery is carried by the movement of lithium ions (Li+) from the negative to the positive electrode, through the non-aqueous electrolyte and separator diaphragm.
During charging, an external electrical power source (the charging circuit) applies a higher voltage (but of the same polarity) than that developed by the battery chemistry, forcing the current to pass in the reverse direction. The lithium ions then migrate from the positive to the negative electrode, where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process known as intercalation.
Lithium iron phosphate battery
The lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) battery, also called LFP battery, is a type of rechargeable battery, specifically a lithium ion battery, which uses LiFePO4 as a cathode material.
Lead–acid battery
Lead–acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, their ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells maintain a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors.
Alkaline battery
Alkaline batteries are a type of power cell dependent upon the reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide (Zn/MnO2).
Compared with original zinc-carbon batteries, while both produce approximately 1.523 volts per cell, alkaline batteries have a higher energy density and longer shelf-life.
Compared with silver-oxide batteries, which alkalines commonly compete against in button cells, they have lower energy density and shorter lifetimes.
Nickel–cadmium battery
The nickel–cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd or NiCad) is a type of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes.
The abbreviation NiCad is a registered trademark of SAFT Corporation, although this brand name is commonly used to describe all nickel–cadmium batteries. The abbreviation NiCd is derived from the chemical symbols of nickel (Ni) and cadmium (Cd).
There are two types of NiCd batteries: sealed and vented.
Nickel–metal hydride battery
A nickel–metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH or Ni-MH, is a type of rechargeable battery. It is very similar to the nickel–cadmium cell (NiCd). NiMH use positive electrodes of nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH), like the NiCd, but the negative electrodes use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy instead of cadmium, being in essence a practical application of nickel–hydrogen battery chemistry. A NiMH battery can have two to three times the capacity of an equivalent size NiCd, and their energy density approaches that of a lithium-ion cell.
Silver-oxide battery
A silver-oxide battery (IEC code: S) is a primary cell with a very high energy/weight ratio. Available either in small sizes as button cells (where the amount of silver used is minimal and not a significant contributor to the product cost), or in large custom designed batteries where the superior performance of the silver-oxide chemistry outweighs cost considerations. These larger cells are mostly found in applications for the military, for example in Mark 37 torpedoes or on Alfa-class submarines. In recent years they have become important as reserve batteries for manned and unmanned spacecraft. Spent batteries can be processed to recover their silver content.
History
The name "battery" was coined by Benjamin Franklin for an arrangement of multiple Leyden jars (an early type of capacitor) after a battery of cannon. Common usage includes a single electrical cell in the definition.
An early form of electrochemical battery called the Baghdad Battery may have been used in antiquity. However, the modern development of batteries started with the Voltaic pile, invented by the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in 1800.
In 1780 the Italian anatomist and physiologist Luigi Galvani noticed that dissected frog's legs would twitch when struck by a spark from a Leyden jar, an external source of electricity. In 1786 he noticed that twitching would occur during lightning storms. After many years Galvani learned how to produce twitching without using any external source of electricity. In 1791 he published a report on "animal electricity." He created an electric circuit consisting of the frog's leg (FL) and two different metals A and B, each metal touching the frog's leg and each other, thus producing the circuit A-FL-B-A-FL-B...etc. In modern terms, the frog's leg served as both the electrolyte and the sensor, and the metals served as electrodes. He noticed that even though the frog was dead, its legs would twitch when he touched them with the metals.
Within a year, Volta realized the frog's moist tissues could be replaced by cardboard soaked in salt water, and the frog's muscular response could be replaced by another form of electrical detection. He already had studied the electrostatic phenomenon of capacitance, which required measurements of electric charge and of electrical potential ("tension"). Building on this experience, Volta was able to detect electric current through his system, also called a Galvanic cell. The terminal voltage of a cell that is not discharging is called its electromotive force (emf), and has the same unit as electrical potential, named (voltage) and measured in volts, in honor of Volta. In 1800, Volta invented the battery by placing many voltaic cells in series, literally piling them one above the other. This Voltaic pile gave a greatly enhanced net emf for the combination, with a voltage of about 50 volts for a 32-cell pile. In many parts of Europe batteries continue to be called piles.
Volta did not appreciate that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy, and that the associated chemical effects (e.g. corrosion) were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834. According to Faraday, cations (positively charged ions) are attracted to the cathode, and anions (negatively charged ions) are attracted to the anode.
How batteries work
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of one or more voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery, reduction (addition of electrons) occurs to cations at the cathode, while oxidation (removal of electrons) occurs to anions at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte, which can be either solid or liquid. Many cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. In that case each half-cell is enclosed in a container, and a separator that is porous to ions but not the bulk of the electrolytes prevents mixing.
Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell.
The electrical driving force across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one Coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 Joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-zinc cells have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.
Source and additional information: Electric battery